Modulators of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma, and methods for the use thereof

ABSTRACT

In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a class of compounds which are capable of modulating processes mediated by peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ). The identification of such compounds makes it possible to intervene in PPAR-γ mediated pathways.

This application is a CON of Ser. No. 09/788,070 filed Feb. 16, 2001 U.S. Pat. No. 6,413,994 DIV of Ser. No. 09/255,392 filed Feb. 22, 1999, U.S. Pat. No. 6,214,850.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods for the modulation of nuclear receptor mediated processes. In a particular aspect, the present invention relates to the use of a specific class of compounds for the modulation of processes mediated by peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ).

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Peroxisome proliferators are a structurally diverse group of compounds which, when administered to rodents, elicit dramatic increases in the size and number of hepatic and renal peroxisomes, as well as concomitant increases in the capacity of peroxisomes to metabolize fatty acids via increased expression of the enzymes required for the β-oxidation cycle (Lazarow and Fujiki, Ann. Rev. Cell Biol. 1:489-530 (1985); Vamecq and Draye, Essays Biochem. 24:1115-225 (1989); and Nelali et al., Cancer Res. 48:5316-5324 (1988)). Chemicals included in this group are the fibrate class of hypolipidermic drugs, herbicides, and phthalate plasticizers (Reddy and Lalwani, Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 12:1-58 (1983)). Peroxisome proliferation can also be elicited by dietary or physiological factors such as a high-fat diet and cold acclimatization.

Insight into the mechanism whereby peroxisome proliferators exert their pleiotropic effects was provided by the identification of a member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily activated by these chemicals (Isseman and Green, Nature 347-645-650 (1990)). This receptor, termed peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARα), was subsequently shown to be activated by a variety of medium and long-chain fatty acids and to stimulate expression of the genes encoding rat acyl-CoA oxidase and hydratase-dehydrogenase (enzymes required for peroxisomal β-oxidation), oxidase and hydratase-dehydrogenase (enzymes required for peroxisomal β-oxidation), as well as rabbit cytochrome P450 4A6, a fatty acid (ω-hydroxylase (Gottlicher et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:4653-4657 (1992); Tugwood et al., EMBO J. 11:433-439 (1992); Bardot et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 192:37-45 (1993); Muerhoff et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:19051-19053 (1992); and Marcus et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90(12):5723-5727 (1993).

The above-noted references suggest a physiological role for PPARα in the regulation of lipid metabolism. PPARα activates transcription by binding to DNA sequence elements, termed peroxisome proliferator response elements (PPRE), as a heterodimer with the retinoid X receptor. The retinoid X receptor is activated by 9-cis retinoic acid (see Kliewer et al., Nature 358:771-774 (1992), Gearing et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:1440-1444 (1993), Keller et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:2160-2164 (1993), Heyman et al., Cell 68:397-406 (1992), and Levin et al., Nature 355:359-361 (1992)). Since the PPARα-RXR complex can be activated by peroxisome proliferators and/or 9-cis retinoic acid, the retinoid and fatty acid signaling pathways are seen to converge in modulating lipid metabolism.

Since the discovery of PPARα, additional isoforms of PPAR have been identified, e.g., PPARα, PPARγ and PPARδ, which are spatially differentially expressed. Because there are several isoforms of PPAR, it would be desirable to identify compounds which are capable of selectively interacting with only one of the PPAR isoforms. Such compounds would find a wide variety of uses, such as, for example, in the prevention of obesity, for the treatment of diabetes, and the like.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the present invention, we have identified a class of compounds which are capable of modulating processes mediated by peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ). The identification of such compounds makes possible intervention in PPAR-γ mediated pathways.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURE

FIG. 1 illustrates the relative reporter activity induced by two different compounds when added alone or in combination to a GAL4-PPARγ fusion protein. In the figure, BRL 49653 refers to 5-[[4-[2-(methyl-2-pyridinylamino)ethoxy]phenyl]-methyl]-2,4-thiazolidendione) and LY 171883 refers to 2-hydroxy-3-propyl-4-[6-(tetrazole-5-yl)butoxy]acetophenone.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the present invention, there are provided methods for modulating process(es) mediated by peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ), said method comprising conducting said process(es) in the presence of at least one antagonist or partial-agonist of PPAR-γ.

Antagonists and partial-agonists of PPAR contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention can be described broadly with reference to the general structure I:

wherein:

each of X₁, X₂, X₃, X₄, X₅ and X₆ is independently selected from carbon, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur, with the proviso that at least three of the atoms forming the ring are carbon,

R₁ is selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, alkenylaryl, substituted alkenylaryl, alkynylaryl, substituted alkynylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, arylalkenyl, substituted arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, substituted arylalkynyl, poly(alkylene oxide), substituted poly(alkylene oxide), poly(alkylene sulfide), substituted poly(alkylene sulfide), poly(alkylene amine), substituted poly(alkylene amine), —OR, —SR or —NR₂, wherein each R is independently selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, poly(alkylene oxide), substituted poly(alkylene oxide), poly(alkylene sulfide), substituted poly(alkylene sulfide), poly(alkylene amine) or substituted poly(alkylene amine); with R₁ having in the range of 2 up to 15 carbon atoms being preferred;

R₂ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, alkenylaryl, substituted alkenylaryl, alkynylaryl, substituted alkynylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, arylalkenyl, substituted arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, substituted arylalkynyl, oxyalkyl, poly(alkylene oxide) or substituted poly(alkylene oxide); with R₂ having in the range of 1 up to about 15 carbon atoms being preferred;

R₃ is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, halogen, alkoxy, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl or substituted alkynyl; with R₃ having in the range of 0 up to about 6 carbon atoms being preferred;

R₄ is selected from hydrogen, formyl, acyl, lower alkyl or substituted lower alkyl; with R₄ having in the range of 0 up to about 4 carbon atoms being preferred;

R₅ is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, lower alkoxy, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl or halogen; with R₅ having in the range of 0 up to about 6 carbon atoms being preferred; and

R₆ is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, lower alkoxy, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl or halogen; with R₆ having in the range of 0 up to about 6 carbon atoms being preferred.

Those of skill in the art recognize that the core ring of structure I can be any one of a number of different aromatic or pseudo-aromatic structures, e.g., a benzene ring, a pyridine ring, a pyrazine, an oxazine, and the like.

As employed herein, “lower alkyl” refers to straight or branched chain alkyl groups having in the range of about 1 up to 4 carbon atoms; “alkyl” refers to straight or branched chain alkyl groups having in the range of about 1 up to 12 carbon atoms; “substituted alkyl” refers to alkyl groups further bearing one or more substituents such as hydroxy, alkoxy (of a lower alkyl group), mercapto (of a lower alkyl group), halogen, trifluoromethyl, cyano, nitro, amino, carboxyl, carbamate, sulfonyl, sulfonamide, heteroatom-containing cyclic moieties, substituted heteroatom-containing cyclic moieties, and the like.

As employed herein, “alkenyl” refers to straight or branched chain hydrocarbyl groups having at least one carbon-carbon double bond, and having in the range of about 2 up to 12 carbon atoms and “substituted alkenyl” refers to alkenyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “alkynyl” refers to straight or branched chain hydrocarbyl groups having at least one carbon-carbon triple bond, and having in the range of about 2 up to 12 carbon atoms, and “substituted alkynyl” refers to alkynyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “aryl” refers to aromatic groups having in the range of 6 up to 14 carbon atoms and “substituted aryl” refers to aryl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “alkylaryl” refers to alkyl-substituted aryl groups and “substituted alkylaryl” refers to alkylaryl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “alkenylaryl” refers to alkenyl-substituted aryl groups and “substituted alkenylaryl” refers to alkenylaryl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “alkynylaryl” refers to alkynyl-substituted aryl groups and “substituted alkynylaryl” refers to alkynylaryl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “arylalkyl” refers to aryl-substituted alkyl groups and “substituted arylalkyl” refers to arylalkyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “arylalkenyl” refers to aryl-substituted alkenyl groups and “substituted arylalkenyl” refers to arylalkenyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “arylalkynyl” refers to aryl-substituted alkynyl groups and “substituted arylalkynyl” refers to arylalkynyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “poly(alkylene oxide)” refers to compounds having the general structure:

—[(CR′₂)_(x)—O]_(y)—H,

wherein each R′ is independently selected from hydrogen or lower alkyl, x falls in the range of 1 up to about 4 and y falls in the range of 2 up to about 8; “substituted poly(alkylene oxide)” refers to poly(alkylene oxide) groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “poly(alkylene sulfide)” refers to compounds having the general structure:

—[(CR′₂)_(x)—S]_(y)—H,

wherein R′, x and y are as defined above; “substituted poly(alkylene sulfide)” refers to poly(alkylene sulfide) groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “poly(alkylene amine)” refers to compounds having the general structure:

—[(CR′₂)_(x)—N(R′)]_(y)—H,

wherein R′, x and y are as defined above; “substituted poly(alkylene amine)” refers to poly(alkylene amine) groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above.

As employed herein, “heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety” refers to cyclic (i.e., 5-, 6- or 7-membered ring-containing) groups containing one or more heteroatoms (e.g., N, O, S, or the like) as part of the ring structure, and having in the range of 1 up to about 14 carbon atoms; and “substituted heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety” refers to heterocyclic groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. Examples of heteroatom-containing cyclic moieties include furans, thiophenes, pyrroles, pyrazoles, diazoles, triazoles, tetrazoles, dithioles, oxathioles, oxazoles, isoxazoles, thiazoles, isothiazoles, oxadiazoles, oxatriazoles, dioxazoles, oxathiazoles, pyrans, pyrones, dioxins, pyridines, pyrimidines, pyrazines, pyridazines, piperazines, diazines, triazines, oxazines, isoxazines, oxathiazines, oxadiazines, morpholines, azepins, oxepins, thiopins, diazepins, benzothiazoles, thiazolidinediones, and the like.

As employed herein, “acyl” refers to alkyl-carbonyl species.

As employed herein, “halogen” or “halo” refers to fluoro substituents, chloro substituents, bromo substituents or iodo substituents.

In a presently preferred aspect of the present invention, “R₁” of Formula I is selected from:

—Y_(n)—(CR″R″)_(m)—Z,

—Y_(n)—(CR″R″)_(m′)—O—(CR″R″)_(m′)—Z, or

—Y_(n)—(CR″R″)_(m″)—N(R′″)—(CR″R″)_(m″)—Z,

wherein:

Y is —O— or —S—,

n is 0 or 1,

each R″ is independently selected from hydrogen, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, hydroxy, lower alkoxy, thioalkyl, halogen, trifluoromethyl, cyano, nitro, amino, carboxyl, carbamate, sulfonyl or sulfonamide,

R′″ is selected from hydrogen, lower alkyl or substituted allkyl,

m falls in the range of 1 up to 15,

each m′ falls independently in the range of 1 up to 8,

each m″ falls independently in the range of 0 up to 12, and

Z is selected from a heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety, a substituted heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety, cyano, nitro, amino, carbamate, —OR^(a), wherein R^(a) is selected from H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, acyl or aryl; —C(O)R^(b), wherein R^(b) is selected from H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, alkylamino, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, arylamino, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, alkenylaryl, substituted alkenylaryl, alkynylaryl, substituted alkynylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, arylalkenyl, substituted arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, substituted arylalkynyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic or trifluoromethyl; —CO₂R^(c), wherein R^(c) is selected from H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl or aryl; —SR^(a), —S(O)R^(a), —S(O)₂R^(a) or —S(O)₂NHR^(a), wherein each R^(a) is as defined above, and the like.

It is presently preferred that Z be selected from heteroatom-containing cyclic moieties, with polyheteroatom-containing cyclic moieties being especially preferred. Those of skill in the art can readily identify numerous groups which fall within the definition of “heteroatom-containing cyclic moieties”, as set forth herein. Especially preferred are polyheteroatom-containing cyclic moieties, e.g., pyrazoles, diazoles, triazoles, tetrazoles, dithioles, oxathioles, oxazoles, isoxazoles, thiazoles, isothiazoles, oxadiazoles, oxatriazoles, dioxazoles, oxathiazoles, pyridazines, piperazines, diazines, triazines, oxazines, isoxazines, oxathiazines, oxadiazines, morpholines, diazepins, thiazolidinediones, and the like.

Especially preferred compounds employed in the practice of the present invention are those wherein “R₁” of Formula I is

 —Y_(n)—(CH₂)_(x)—Z

wherein:

Y is —O— or —S—,

n is 0 or 1,

x falls in the range of 2 up to 12; and

Z is a triazole, a tetrazole, an oxadiazole, an oxatriazole, a dioxazole, an oxathiazole, a triazine, an isoxazine, an oxathiazine, an oxadiazine, a thiazolidinedione, and the like.

A presently preferred species of R₁ is —O—(CH₂)₄-[tetrazoline].

In another preferred aspect of the present invention, “R₂” of Formula I is selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, butoxy, and the like.

In yet another preferred aspect of the present invention, “R₃” of Formula I is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, alkoxy, and the like.

In still another preferred aspect of the present invention, “R₄” of Formula I is selected from formyl, acyl, thiazolidenedione, alkyl-substituted thiazolidenedione, and the like.

In a further preferred aspect of the present invention, “R₅” of Formula I is hydrogen.

In a still further preferred aspect of the present invention, “R₆” of Formula I is hydrogen.

In yet another preferred aspect of the present invention, at least one of R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅ and R₆ (in addition to R₁) are not hydrogen. It is especially preferred that at least two of R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅ and R₆ (in addition to R₁) are not hydrogen. A plurality of substituents on the ring of structure I is especially preferred when the backbone of R₁ contains no greater than 6 atoms.

Presently preferred species contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention include compounds wherein:

R₁ is —O—(CH₂)₄-[tetrazoline],

R₂ is hydrogen or lower alkyl,

R₃ is hydroxy or alkoxy,

R₄ is acyl or thiazolidenedione; and

R₅ and R₆ are each hydrogen, as well as compounds wherein:

R₁ is —O—(CH₂)_(y)-thiazolidenedione, wherein y falls in the range of about 2 up to 8;

R₂ is hydrogen or lower alkyl,

R₃ is hydroxy or alkoxy,

R₄ is acyl or thiazolidenedione; and

R₅ and R₆ are each hydrogen.

The above-described compounds can be readily prepared using a variety of synthetic methods, as are well known by those of skill in the art. For example, many of the above-described compounds can be prepared chemically or enzymatically.

As employed herein, the term “modulate” refers to the ability of a modulator for a member of the steroid/thyroid superfamily to either directly (by binding to the receptor as a ligand) or indirectly (as a precursor for a ligand or an inducer which promotes production of ligand from a precursor) induce expression of gene(s) maintained under hormone expression control, or to repress expression of gene(s) maintained under such control.

As employed herein, the phrase “processes mediated by PPARγ” refers to biological, physiological, endocrinological, and other bodily processes which are mediated by receptor or receptor combinations which are responsive to the PPAR-γ antagonists and partial-agonists described herein (e.g., cell differentiation to produce lipid-accumulating cells, regulation of insulin-sensitivity and blood glucose levels, especially as related to hypoglycemia/hyperinsulinism (resulting, for example, from abnormal pancreatic beta-cell function, insulin-secreting tumors and/or autoimmune hypoglycemia due to autoantibodies to insulin, the insulin receptor or autoantibodies that are stimulatory to pancreatic beta-cells), the formation of macrophages which lead to the development of atherosclerotic plaques, and the like). Modulation of such processes can be accomplished in vitro or in vivo. In vivo modulation can be carried out in a wide range of subjects, such as, for example, humans, rodents, sheep, pigs, cows, and the like.

PPAR-γ-selective antagonists or partial-agonists contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention can be employed for both in vitro and in vivo applications. For in vivo applications, the invention compounds can be incorporated into a pharmaceutically acceptable formulation for administration. Those of skill in the art can readily determine suitable dosage levels when compounds contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention are so used.

In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method of screening for antagonists of PPARγ receptor proteins, said method comprising

culturing test cells containing

(i) increasing concentrations of at least one compound whose ability to inhibit the transcription activation activity of PPARγ agonists is sought to be determined, and

(ii) optionally, at least one PPARγ agonist,

wherein said test cells contain

(i) exogenous DNA which expresses intact PPARγ or a modified form of PPARγ, wherein the modified form of PPARγ contains the DNA binding domain of GAL4, and

(ii) a PPRE or GAL4 response element, respectively, operatively linked to a reporter gene; and thereafter

assaying for evidence of transcription of said reporter gene in said cells as a function of the concentration of said compound in said culture medium, thereby indicating the ability of said compound to inhibit activation of transcription by PPARγ agonists.

Media employed for such culturing may include agonist for the receptor being tested, or the receptor may be constitutive (i.e., not require the presence of agonist for activation), or a fixed concentration of agonist can be added to the media employed for such testing.

The above-described assays of the present invention have low background and a broad dynamic range.

Thus, in accordance with the present invention, compound(s) which fall within the structure of Formula I can readily be tested for the ability to regulate the transcription-activating effects of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ). This can be carried out by assaying for changes in the level of reporter protein present as a result of contacting cells containing the receptor and reporter vector with test compound;

wherein the reporter vector comprises:

(a) a promoter that is operable in the cell,

(b) a hormone response element, and

(c) a DNA segment encoding a reporter protein,

wherein the reporter protein-encoding DNA segment is operatively linked to the promoter for transcription of the DNA segment, and

wherein the hormone response element is operatively linked to the promoter for activation thereof.

Hormone response elements contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention are composed of at least one direct repeat of two or more half sites separated by a spacer of one nucleotide. The spacer nucleotide can be selected from any one of A, C, G or T. Each half site of response elements contemplated for use in the practice of the invention comprises the sequence

-RGBNNM-,

wherein

R is selected from A or G;

B is selected from G, C, or T;

each N is independently selected from A, T, C, or G; and

M is selected from A or C;

with the proviso that at least 4 nucleotides of said -RGBNNM- sequence are identical with the nucleotides at corresponding positions of the sequence -AGGTCA-. Response elements employed in the practice of the present invention can optionally be preceded by N_(x), wherein x falls in the range of 0 up to 5.

Presently preferred response elements contain at least one copy (with one, two or three copies most common) of the minimal sequence:

AGGACA A AGGTCA (SEQ ID NO:5).

As noted above, the minimal sequence can optionally be flanked by additional residues, for example, as in the sequence:

GGACC AGGACA A AGGTCA CGTTC (SEQ ID NO:6).

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, only the ligand binding domain of PPARγ is utilized, in combination with the DNA binding domain of GAL4 protein, for the identification of PPARγ ligands or ligand-precursors. This allows one to avoid possible background signal caused by the potential presence of endogenous PPAR isoforms in the host cells used for the assay.

The DNA binding domain of the yeast GAL4 protein comprises at least the first 74 amino acids thereof (see, for example, Keegan et al., Science 231:699-704 (1986)). Preferably, the first 90 or more amino acids of the GAL4 protein will be used, with the first 147 amino acid residues of yeast GAL4 being presently most preferred.

The GAL4 fragment employed in the practice of the present invention can be incorporated into any of a number of sites within the PPARγ receptor protein. For example, the GAL4 DNA binding domain can be introduced at the amino terminus of the PPARγ receptor protein, or the GAL4 DNA binding domain can be substituted for the native DNA binding domain of the PPARγ receptor, or the GAL4 DNA binding domain can be introduced at the carboxy terminus of the PPARγ receptor protein, or at other positions as can readily be determined by those of skill in the art. Thus, for example, a modified receptor protein can be prepared which consists essentially of amino acid residues 1-147 of GAL4, plus the ligand binding domain of PPARγ (i.e., containing the ligand binding domain only of said receptor (i.e., residues 163-475 of SEQ ID NO:2), substantially absent the DNA binding domain and amino terminal domain thereof).

Identification methods according to the present invention involve the use of a functional bioassay system, wherein the modified receptor and a reporter plasmid are cultured in suitable host cells in the presence of test compound. Evidence of transcription (e.g., expression) of reporter gene is then monitored to determine the presence of an activated receptor-ligand complex. Accordingly, the functional bioassay system utilizes two plasmids: an “expression” plasmid and a “reporter” plasmid. The expression plasmid can be any plasmid which contains and is capable of expressing DNA encoding the desired form of PPARγ receptor protein (i.e., intact receptor or GAL4 chimeric receptor as described hereinabove), in a suitable host cell. The reporter plasmid can be any plasmid which contains an operative PPRE or GAL4 response element, as appropriate, functionally linked to an operative reporter gene.

Exemplary PPREs have been described in detail hereinabove. Exemplary GAL4 response elements are those containing the palindromic 17-mer:

5′-CGGAGGACTGTCCTCCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:7),

such as, for example, 17MX, as described by Webster et al., in Cell 52:169-178 (1988), as well as derivatives thereof Additional examples of suitable response elements include those described by Hollenberg and Evans in Cell 55:899-906 (1988); or Webster et al. in Cell 54:199-207 (1988).

Exemplary reporter genes include chloramphenicol transferase (CAT), luciferase (LUC), beta-galactosidase (β-gal), and the like. Exemplary promoters include the simian virus (SV) promoter or modified form thereof (e.g., ΔSV), the thymidine kinase (TK) promoter, the mammary tumor virus (MTV) promoter or modified form thereof (e.g., ΔMTV), and the like [see, for example, Mangelsdorf et al., in Nature 345:224-229 (1990), Mangelsdorf et al., in Cell 66:555-561 (1991), and Berger et al., in J. Steroid Biochem. Molec. Biol. 41:733-738 (1992)]. The plasmids pGMCAT, pGHCAT, pTK-GAL_(p)3-LUC, ΔMTV-GAL_(p)3-LUC, ΔMTV-GAL_(p)3-CAT, and the like, are examples of reporter plasmids which contain an operative hormone responsive promoter/enhancer element functionally linked to an operative reporter gene, and can therefore be used in the above-described functional bioassay (see Example 2 for details on the preparation of these plasmids). In pGMCAT, the operative hormone responsive promoter/enhancer element is the MTV LTR; in pGHCAT it is the functional portion of the growth hormone promoter. In both pGMCAT and GHCAT the operative reporter gene is the bacterial gene for chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT).

As used herein in the phrase “operative response element functionally linked to an operative reporter gene”, the word “operative” means that the respective DNA sequences (represented by the terms “PPRE,” “GAL4 response element” and “reporter gene”) are operational, i.e., work for their intended purposes; the word “functionally” means that after the two segments are linked, upon appropriate activation by a ligand-receptor complex, the reporter gene will be expressed as the result of the fact that the “PPRE” or “GAL4 response element” was “turned on” or otherwise activated.

In practicing the above-described functional bioassay, the expression plasmid and the reporter plasmid are co-transfected into suitable host cells. The transfected host cells are then cultured in the presence and absence of a test compound to determine if the test compound is able to produce activation of the promoter operatively linked to the PPRE or GAL4 response element of the reporter plasmid. Thereafter, the transfected and cultured host cells are monitored for induction (i.e., the presence) of the product of the reporter gene sequence.

Any cell line can be used as a suitable “host” for the functional bioassay contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention. Thus, in contrast to the requirements of prior art assay systems, when GAL4 chimerics are employed, there is no need to use receptor-negative cells in carrying out the invention process. Since the modified receptor employed in the practice of the present invention is the only species in the test cell which is capable of initiating transcription from a GAL4 response element, the expression of native receptor by the test cell does not contribute to background levels. Thus, the invention bioassay can be made to be very selective.

Cells contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention include transformed cells, non-transformed cells, neoplastic cells, primary cultures of different cell types, and the like. Exemplary cells which can be employed in the practice of the present invention include Schneider cells, CV-1 cells, HuTu80 cells, F9 cells, NTERA2 cells, NB4 cells, HL-60 cells, 293 cells, Hela cells, yeast cells, and the like. Preferred host cells for use in the functional bioassay system are COS cells and CV-1 cells. COS-1 (referred to as COS) cells are monkey kidney cells that express SV40 T antigen (Tag); while CV-1 cells do not express SV40 Tag. The presence of Tag in the COS-1 derivative lines allows the introduced expression plasmid to replicate and provides a relative increase in the amount of receptor produced during the assay period. CV-1 cells are presently preferred because they are particularly convenient for gene transfer studies and provide a sensitive and well-described host cell system.

The above-described cells (or fractions thereof) are maintained under physiological conditions when contacted with physiologically active compound. “Physiological conditions” are readily understood by those of skill in the art to comprise an isotonic, aqueous nutrient medium at a temperature of about 37° C.

In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method for treating obesity, said method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an amount of a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) antagonist effective to block cell differentiation to produce lipid-accumulating cells. As employed herein “treating” obesity embraces preventing as well as reversing obesity.

As employed here, “obesity” refers generally to individuals who are at least about 20-30% over the average weight for his/her age, sex and height. Technically, “obese” is defined, for males, as individuals whose body mass index is greater than 27.8 kg/m², and for females, as individuals whose body mass index is greater than 27.3 kg/m². Those of skill in the art readily recognize that the invention method is not limited to those who fall within the above criteria. Indeed, the invention method can also be advantageously practiced by individuals who fall outside of these traditional criteria, for example, by those who may be prone to obesity.

Those of skill in the art recognize that there are numerous cell types which are capable of differentiation to produce “lipid-accumulating cells,” such as, for example, mesenchymal cells (e.g., fibroblasts).

As employed herein, the phrase “amount . . . effective to block cell differentiation” refers to levels of compound sufficient to provide circulating concentrations high enough to effect activation of PPARγ. Such a concentration typically falls in the range of about 10 nM up to 2 μM; with concentrations in the range of about 100 nM up to 500 nM being preferred. Since the activity of different compounds which fall within the definition of structure I as set forth above may vary considerably, and since individual subjects may present a wide variation in severity of symptoms, it is up to the practitioner to determine a subject's response to treatment and vary the dosages accordingly.

In accordance with a particular embodiment of the present invention, compositions comprising at least one antagonist or partial-agonist of PPAR-γ (as described herein), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier are contemplated. Exemplary pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include carriers suitable for oral, intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intracutaneous, and the like administration. Administration in the form of creams, lotions, tablets, dispersible powders, granules, syrups, elixirs, sterile aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions or emulsions, and the like, is contemplated.

For the preparation of oral liquids, suitable carriers include emulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups, and the like, optionally containing additives such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening, flavoring and perfuming agents, and the like.

For the preparation of fluids for parenteral administration, suitable carriers include sterile aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, or emulsions. Examples of non-aqueous solvents or vehicles are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils, such as olive oil and corn oil, gelatin, and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Such dosage forms may also contain adjuvants such as preserving, wetting, emulsifying, and dispersing agents. They may be sterilized, for example, by filtration through a bacteria-retaining filter, by incorporating sterilizing agents into the compositions, by irradiating the compositions, or by heating the compositions. They can also be manufactured in the form of sterile water, or some other sterile injectable medium immediately before use.

In accordance with still another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method for modulating insulin-sensitivity and blood glucose levels in a subject, said method comprising administering to a subject in need of such treatment an amount of a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) antagonist or partial-agonist effective to lower the blood glucose level of said subject.

As employed herein, the phrase “amount . . . effective to lower blood glucose levels” refers to levels of compound sufficient to provide circulating concentrations high enough to accomplish the desired effect. Such a concentration typically falls in the range of about 10 nM up to 2 μM; with concentrations in the range of about 100 nM up to 500 nM being preferred. As noted previously, since the activity of different compounds which fall within the definition of structure I as set forth above may vary considerably, and since individual subjects may present a wide variation in severity of symptoms, it is up to the practitioner to determine a subject's response to treatment and vary the dosages accordingly.

The invention will now be described in greater detail by reference to the following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLE 1 Preparation of GAL4-Receptor Fusion Proteins

A basic vector useful for the generation of GAL4-receptor fusion proteins is called pCMX-GAL4 (see SEQ ID NOS:3-4). This vector encodes GAL4 DNA binding domain, followed by a polylinker sequence useful in the cloning. The parental expression vector pCMX has been described by Umesono et al., in Cell 65:1255-1266 (1991), and the GAL4 portion of pCMX-GAL4 is derived from plasmid pSG424, described by Sadowski and Ptashne, in Nucleic Acids Res. 17:7539 (1989).

In general, GAL4-receptor ligand binding domain fusions are prepared by taking advantage of mutant receptor cDNA clones, such as GR-RAR chimera [see, for example, Giguere et al., in Nature 330:624-629 (1987)]. These mutant receptor cDNAs encode common XhoI sites at the end of the DNA binding domain, as described by Giguere et al., supra. To do so, a new pCMX-GAL4 vector was prepared which encodes a compatible SalI site in the polylinker sequence (there is an XhoI site in the GAL4 sequence):

SalI site: G′TCGAC

XhoI site: C′TCGAG

This allows efficient transfer of the receptor ligand binding domain to GAL4 DNA binding domain. Through this method, a number of chimeric species have been generated, including GAL4-PPARγ, containing residues 163-475 of PPARγ (see SEQ ID NOS:1-2).

If mutants of the type referred to above are not available for the construction of GAL4-containing chimerics, one may simply look for any convenient restriction enzyme site within or downstream of the DNA binding domain of the receptor of interest (i.e., within about the first 30 amino acid residues downstream of the conserved Gly-Met residues of the DNA binding domain, i.e., within 30 residues of the last two residues shown in SEQ ID NOS: 1-2), and utilize the carboxy terminal sequences therefrom.

EXAMPLE 2 Preparation of Reporter Constructs

Various reporter constructs are used in the examples which follow. They are prepared as follows:

TK-LUC: The MTV-LTR promoter sequence was removed from the MTV-LUC plasmid described by Hollenberg and Evans in Cell 55:899-906 (1988) by HindIII and XhoI digest, and cloned with the HindIII-XhoI fragment of the Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene promoter (−105 to +51 with respect to the transcription start site, m, isolated from plasmid pBLCAT2, described by Luckow & Schutz in Nucleic Acids Res. 15:5490 (1987)) to generate parental construct TK-LUC.

pTK-PPRE3-LUC: Three copies of double-stranded peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE) oligonucleotides (see SEQ ID NO:6) were cloned upstream of the TK promoter of TK-LUC at the SalI site.

pTK-MH100x4-LUC: Four copies of double-stranded MH1000 oligonucleotides, encoding a GAL4 binding site, were cloned upstream of the TK promoter of TK-LUC at the HindIII site.

CMX-βGAL: The coding sequence for the E. coli β-galactosidase gene was isolated from plasmid pCH110 [see Hall et al., J. Mol. Appl. Genet. 2:101-109 (1983)] by HindIII and BamHI digest, and cloned into pCMX eucaryotic expression vector [see Umesono et al., supra].

EXAMPLE 3 Screening Assay for PPAR-γ Antagonists

Effector plasmid, reporter plasmid, and β-galactosidase control plasmid are co-transfected into CV-1 cells at a ratio of about 1:3:5, using a liposome-mediated method, employing N-{2-(2,3)-dioleoyloxy)propyl-N,N,N-trimethyl ammonium methyl sulfate} (i.e., DOTAP, Boehlinger Mannheim) according to the manufacturer's instructions in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) with 10% delipidated hormone-depleted fetal calf serum. After about 2-3 hours, the cells are washed with DMEM and agonist (200 nM BRL 49653) and/or an appropriate test compound (LY 171883; see FIG. 1) is added to the media. After 24-48 hours of incubation, the cells are rinsed with phosphate buffered saline (pH 7.2) and lysed. Aliquots are assayed for luciferase and β-galactosidase activity. Luciferase activity is normalized to optical density units of β-galactosidase per minute of incubation.

Thus, CV-1 cells are co-transfected with CMX-GAL-PPARγ and pTK-MH100x4-LUC at a ratio of about 100 ng of receptor-encoding DNA per 10⁵ cells. The usual amounts of DNA per 10⁵ cells are 100 ng of CMX-GAL-PPARγ, 300 ng of pTK-MH100x4-LUC, and 500 ng of CMX-βGAL. Typically, transfections are performed in triplicate. The plates are then incubated for 2-3 hours at 37° C.

The cells are washed with fresh medium. Fresh medium containing agonist (200 nM BRL 49653) and/or an appropriate test compound (LY 171883; see FIG. 1) is added to the media. A solvent control is also performed. The cells are incubated at 37° C. for 1-2 days.

The cells are rinsed twice with buffered saline solution. Subsequently, cells are lysed, in situ, by adding 200 μl of lysis buffer. After 30 minutes incubation at room temperature, 40 μl aliquots of cell lysate are transferred to 96-well plates for luciferase reporter gene assays and β-galactosidase transfection controls [see Heyman et al., Cell 68:397-406 (1992)].

The data are expressed as relative light units (RLUs) per O.D. unit of β-galactosidase per minute. The triplicates are averaged and plotted (see FIG. 1) as relative reporter activity induced by agonist alone, antagonist alone, or combinations thereof. Review of the data presented in FIG. 1 reveals that 2-hydroxy-3-propyl-4-[6-(tetrazole-5-yl)butoxy]acetophenone (i.e., LY 171883) is a functional antagonist of PPARγ.

While the invention has been described in detail with reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood that modifications and variations are within the spirit and scope of that which is described and claimed.

                   #             SEQUENCE LISTING <160> NUMBER OF SEQ ID NOS: 7 <210> SEQ ID NO 1 <211> LENGTH: 2005 <212> TYPE: DNA <213> ORGANISM: Mus Musculus <220> FEATURE: <221> NAME/KEY: CDS <222> LOCATION: (352)..(1776) <400> SEQUENCE: 1 atcgaatccc gcgccccagg cgctgccgct ctgagtgcga cgggccccgc ct #ggccggcc     60 ggaggacgcg gaagaagaga cctggggcgc tgcctggggt attgggtcgc gc #gcagtgag    120 gggaccgagt gtgacgacaa ggtgaccggg ctgaggggac gggctgagga ga #agtcacac    180 tctgacagga gcctgtgaga ccaacagcct gacggggtct cggttgaggg ga #cgcgggct    240 gagaagtcac gttctgacag gactgtgtga cagacaagat ttgaaagaag cg #gtgaacca    300 ctgatattca ggacattttt aaaaacaaga ctacccttta ctgaaattac c  #atg gtt     357                    #                   #                   #   Met Val                    #                   #                   #   1 gac aca gag atg cca ttc tgg ccc acc aac tt #c gga atc agc tct gtg      405 Asp Thr Glu Met Pro Phe Trp Pro Thr Asn Ph #e Gly Ile Ser Ser Val         5           #         10          #         15 gac ctc tcc gtg atg gaa gac cac tcg cat tc #c ttt gac atc aag ccc      453 Asp Leu Ser Val Met Glu Asp His Ser His Se #r Phe Asp Ile Lys Pro     20               #    25               #    30 ttt acc aca gtt gat ttc tcc agc att tct gc #t cca cac tat gaa gac      501 Phe Thr Thr Val Asp Phe Ser Ser Ile Ser Al #a Pro His Tyr Glu Asp 35                   #40                   #45                   #50 att cca ttc aca aga gct gac cca atg gtt gc #t gat tac aaa tat gac      549 Ile Pro Phe Thr Arg Ala Asp Pro Met Val Al #a Asp Tyr Lys Tyr Asp                 55   #                60   #                65 ctg aag ctc caa gaa tac caa agt gcg atc aa #a gta gaa cct gca tct      597 Leu Lys Leu Gln Glu Tyr Gln Ser Ala Ile Ly #s Val Glu Pro Ala Ser             70       #            75       #            80 cca cct tat tat tct gaa aag acc cag ctc ta #c aac agg cct cat gaa      645 Pro Pro Tyr Tyr Ser Glu Lys Thr Gln Leu Ty #r Asn Arg Pro His Glu         85           #        90           #        95 gaa cct tct aac tcc ctc atg gcc att gag tg #c cga gtc tgt ggg gat      693 Glu Pro Ser Asn Ser Leu Met Ala Ile Glu Cy #s Arg Val Cys Gly Asp     100               #   105               #   110 aaa gca tca ggc ttc cac tat gga gtt cat gc #t tgt gaa gga tgc aag      741 Lys Ala Ser Gly Phe His Tyr Gly Val His Al #a Cys Glu Gly Cys Lys 115                 1 #20                 1 #25                 1 #30 ggt ttt ttc cga aga acc atc cga ttg aag ct #t att tat gat agg tgt      789 Gly Phe Phe Arg Arg Thr Ile Arg Leu Lys Le #u Ile Tyr Asp Arg Cys                 135   #               140   #               145 gat ctt aac tgc cgg atc cac aaa aaa agt ag #a aat aaa tgt cag tac      837 Asp Leu Asn Cys Arg Ile His Lys Lys Ser Ar #g Asn Lys Cys Gln Tyr             150       #           155       #           160 tgt cgg ttt cag aag tgc ctt gct gtg ggg at #g tct cac aat gcc atc      885 Cys Arg Phe Gln Lys Cys Leu Ala Val Gly Me #t Ser His Asn Ala Ile         165           #       170           #       175 agg ttt ggg cgg atg cca cag gcc gag aag ga #g aag ctg ttg gcg gag      933 Arg Phe Gly Arg Met Pro Gln Ala Glu Lys Gl #u Lys Leu Leu Ala Glu     180               #   185               #   190 atc tcc agt gat atc gac cag ctg aac cca ga #g tct gct gat ctg cga      981 Ile Ser Ser Asp Ile Asp Gln Leu Asn Pro Gl #u Ser Ala Asp Leu Arg 195                 2 #00                 2 #05                 2 #10 gcc ctg gca aag cat ttg tat gac tca tac at #a aag tcc ttc ccg ctg     1029 Ala Leu Ala Lys His Leu Tyr Asp Ser Tyr Il #e Lys Ser Phe Pro Leu                 215   #               220   #               225 acc aaa gcc aag gcg agg gcg atc ttg aca gg #a aag aca acg gac aaa     1077 Thr Lys Ala Lys Ala Arg Ala Ile Leu Thr Gl #y Lys Thr Thr Asp Lys             230       #           235       #           240 tca cca ttt gtc atc tac gac atg aat tcc tt #a atg atg gga gaa gat     1125 Ser Pro Phe Val Ile Tyr Asp Met Asn Ser Le #u Met Met Gly Glu Asp         245           #       250           #       255 aaa atc aag ttc aaa cat atc acc ccc ctg ca #g gag cag agc aaa gag     1173 Lys Ile Lys Phe Lys His Ile Thr Pro Leu Gl #n Glu Gln Ser Lys Glu     260               #   265               #   270 gtg gcc atc cga att ttt caa ggg tgc cag tt #t cga tcc gta gaa gcc     1221 Val Ala Ile Arg Ile Phe Gln Gly Cys Gln Ph #e Arg Ser Val Glu Ala 275                 2 #80                 2 #85                 2 #90 gtg caa gag atc aca gag tat gcc aaa aat at #c cct ggt ttc att aac     1269 Val Gln Glu Ile Thr Glu Tyr Ala Lys Asn Il #e Pro Gly Phe Ile Asn                 295   #               300   #               305 ctt gat ttg aat gac caa gtg act ctg ctc aa #g tat ggt gtc cat gag     1317 Leu Asp Leu Asn Asp Gln Val Thr Leu Leu Ly #s Tyr Gly Val His Glu             310       #           315       #           320 atc atc tac acg atg ctg gcc tcc ctg atg aa #t aaa gat gga gtc ctc     1365 Ile Ile Tyr Thr Met Leu Ala Ser Leu Met As #n Lys Asp Gly Val Leu         325           #       330           #       335 atc tca gag ggc caa gga ttc atg acc agg ga #g ttc ctc aaa agc ctg     1413 Ile Ser Glu Gly Gln Gly Phe Met Thr Arg Gl #u Phe Leu Lys Ser Leu     340               #   345               #   350 cgg aag ccc ttt ggt gac ttt atg gag cct aa #g ttt gag ttt gct gtg     1461 Arg Lys Pro Phe Gly Asp Phe Met Glu Pro Ly #s Phe Glu Phe Ala Val 355                 3 #60                 3 #65                 3 #70 aag ttc aat gca ctg gaa tta gat gac agt ga #c ttg gct ata ttt ata     1509 Lys Phe Asn Ala Leu Glu Leu Asp Asp Ser As #p Leu Ala Ile Phe Ile                 375   #               380   #               385 gct gtc att att ctc agt gga gac cgc cca gg #c ttg ctg aac gtg aag     1557 Ala Val Ile Ile Leu Ser Gly Asp Arg Pro Gl #y Leu Leu Asn Val Lys             390       #           395       #           400 ccc atc gag gac atc caa gac aac ctg ctg ca #g gcc ctg gaa ctg cag     1605 Pro Ile Glu Asp Ile Gln Asp Asn Leu Leu Gl #n Ala Leu Glu Leu Gln         405           #       410           #       415 ctc aag ctg aat cac cca gag tcc tct cag ct #g ttc gcc aag gtg ctc     1653 Leu Lys Leu Asn His Pro Glu Ser Ser Gln Le #u Phe Ala Lys Val Leu     420               #   425               #   430 cag aag atg aca gac ctc agg cag atc gtc ac #a gag cac gtg cag cta     1701 Gln Lys Met Thr Asp Leu Arg Gln Ile Val Th #r Glu His Val Gln Leu 435                 4 #40                 4 #45                 4 #50 ctg cat gtg atc aag aag aca gag aca gac at #g agc ctt cac ccc ctg     1749 Leu His Val Ile Lys Lys Thr Glu Thr Asp Me #t Ser Leu His Pro Leu                 455   #               460   #               465 ctc cag gag atc tac aag gac ttg tat tagcaggaa #a gtcccacccg           1796 Leu Gln Glu Ile Tyr Lys Asp Leu Tyr             470       #           475 ctgacaacgt gttccttcta ttgattgcac tattattttg agggaaaaaa at #ctgacacc   1856 taagaaattt actgtgaaaa agcatttaaa aacaaaaagt tttagaacat ga #tctatttt   1916 atgcatattg tttataaaga tacatttaca atttactttt aatattaaaa at #taccacat   1976 tataaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaa aggaattcc          #                   #          2005 <210> SEQ ID NO 2 <211> LENGTH: 475 <212> TYPE: PRT <213> ORGANISM: Mus Musculus <400> SEQUENCE: 2 Met Val Asp Thr Glu Met Pro Phe Trp Pro Th #r Asn Phe Gly Ile Ser 1               5    #                10   #                15 Ser Val Asp Leu Ser Val Met Glu Asp His Se #r His Ser Phe Asp Ile             20       #            25       #            30 Lys Pro Phe Thr Thr Val Asp Phe Ser Ser Il #e Ser Ala Pro His Tyr         35           #        40           #        45 Glu Asp Ile Pro Phe Thr Arg Ala Asp Pro Me #t Val Ala Asp Tyr Lys     50               #    55               #    60 Tyr Asp Leu Lys Leu Gln Glu Tyr Gln Ser Al #a Ile Lys Val Glu Pro 65                   #70                   #75                   #80 Ala Ser Pro Pro Tyr Tyr Ser Glu Lys Thr Gl #n Leu Tyr Asn Arg Pro                 85   #                90   #                95 His Glu Glu Pro Ser Asn Ser Leu Met Ala Il #e Glu Cys Arg Val Cys             100       #           105       #           110 Gly Asp Lys Ala Ser Gly Phe His Tyr Gly Va #l His Ala Cys Glu Gly         115           #       120           #       125 Cys Lys Gly Phe Phe Arg Arg Thr Ile Arg Le #u Lys Leu Ile Tyr Asp     130               #   135               #   140 Arg Cys Asp Leu Asn Cys Arg Ile His Lys Ly #s Ser Arg Asn Lys Cys 145                 1 #50                 1 #55                 1 #60 Gln Tyr Cys Arg Phe Gln Lys Cys Leu Ala Va #l Gly Met Ser His Asn                 165   #               170   #               175 Ala Ile Arg Phe Gly Arg Met Pro Gln Ala Gl #u Lys Glu Lys Leu Leu             180       #           185       #           190 Ala Glu Ile Ser Ser Asp Ile Asp Gln Leu As #n Pro Glu Ser Ala Asp         195           #       200           #       205 Leu Arg Ala Leu Ala Lys His Leu Tyr Asp Se #r Tyr Ile Lys Ser Phe     210               #   215               #   220 Pro Leu Thr Lys Ala Lys Ala Arg Ala Ile Le #u Thr Gly Lys Thr Thr 225                 2 #30                 2 #35                 2 #40 Asp Lys Ser Pro Phe Val Ile Tyr Asp Met As #n Ser Leu Met Met Gly                 245   #               250   #               255 Glu Asp Lys Ile Lys Phe Lys His Ile Thr Pr #o Leu Gln Glu Gln Ser             260       #           265       #           270 Lys Glu Val Ala Ile Arg Ile Phe Gln Gly Cy #s Gln Phe Arg Ser Val         275           #       280           #       285 Glu Ala Val Gln Glu Ile Thr Glu Tyr Ala Ly #s Asn Ile Pro Gly Phe     290               #   295               #   300 Ile Asn Leu Asp Leu Asn Asp Gln Val Thr Le #u Leu Lys Tyr Gly Val 305                 3 #10                 3 #15                 3 #20 His Glu Ile Ile Tyr Thr Met Leu Ala Ser Le #u Met Asn Lys Asp Gly                 325   #               330   #               335 Val Leu Ile Ser Glu Gly Gln Gly Phe Met Th #r Arg Glu Phe Leu Lys             340       #           345       #           350 Ser Leu Arg Lys Pro Phe Gly Asp Phe Met Gl #u Pro Lys Phe Glu Phe         355           #       360           #       365 Ala Val Lys Phe Asn Ala Leu Glu Leu Asp As #p Ser Asp Leu Ala Ile     370               #   375               #   380 Phe Ile Ala Val Ile Ile Leu Ser Gly Asp Ar #g Pro Gly Leu Leu Asn 385                 3 #90                 3 #95                 4 #00 Val Lys Pro Ile Glu Asp Ile Gln Asp Asn Le #u Leu Gln Ala Leu Glu                 405   #               410   #               415 Leu Gln Leu Lys Leu Asn His Pro Glu Ser Se #r Gln Leu Phe Ala Lys             420       #           425       #           430 Val Leu Gln Lys Met Thr Asp Leu Arg Gln Il #e Val Thr Glu His Val         435           #       440           #       445 Gln Leu Leu His Val Ile Lys Lys Thr Glu Th #r Asp Met Ser Leu His     450               #   455               #   460 Pro Leu Leu Gln Glu Ile Tyr Lys Asp Leu Ty #r 465                 4 #70                 4 #75 <210> SEQ ID NO 3 <211> LENGTH: 546 <212> TYPE: DNA <213> ORGANISM: Saccharomyces cerevisiae <220> FEATURE: <221> NAME/KEY: CDS <222> LOCATION: (35)..(544) <400> SEQUENCE: 3 gggagaccca agcttgaagc aagcctcctg aaag atg aag cta c #tg tct tct atc     55                    #                   #  Met Lys Leu Leu Ser Ser Ile                    #                   #  1               5 gaa caa gca tgc gat att tgc cga ctt aaa aa #g ctc aag tgc tcc aaa      103 Glu Gln Ala Cys Asp Ile Cys Arg Leu Lys Ly #s Leu Lys Cys Ser Lys         10           #        15           #        20 gaa aaa ccg aag tgc gcc aag tgt ctg aag aa #c aac tgg gag tgt cgc      151 Glu Lys Pro Lys Cys Ala Lys Cys Leu Lys As #n Asn Trp Glu Cys Arg     25               #    30               #    35 tac tct ccc aaa acc aaa agg tct ccg ctg ac #t agg gca cat ctg aca      199 Tyr Ser Pro Lys Thr Lys Arg Ser Pro Leu Th #r Arg Ala His Leu Thr 40                   #45                   #50                   #55 gaa gtg gaa tca agg cta gaa aga ctg gaa ca #g cta ttt cta ctg att      247 Glu Val Glu Ser Arg Leu Glu Arg Leu Glu Gl #n Leu Phe Leu Leu Ile                 60   #                65   #                70 ttt cct cga gaa gac ctt gac atg att ttg aa #a atg gat tct tta cag      295 Phe Pro Arg Glu Asp Leu Asp Met Ile Leu Ly #s Met Asp Ser Leu Gln             75       #            80       #            85 gat ata aaa gca ttg tta aca gga tta ttt gt #a caa gat aat gtg aat      343 Asp Ile Lys Ala Leu Leu Thr Gly Leu Phe Va #l Gln Asp Asn Val Asn         90           #        95           #        100 aaa gat gcc gtc aca gat aga ttg gct tca gt #g gag act gat atg cct      391 Lys Asp Ala Val Thr Asp Arg Leu Ala Ser Va #l Glu Thr Asp Met Pro     105               #   110               #   115 cta aca ttg aga cag cat aga ata agt gcg ac #a tca tca tcg gaa gag      439 Leu Thr Leu Arg Gln His Arg Ile Ser Ala Th #r Ser Ser Ser Glu Glu 120                 1 #25                 1 #30                 1 #35 agt agt aac aaa ggt caa aga cag ttg act gt #a tcg ccg gaa ttc ccg      487 Ser Ser Asn Lys Gly Gln Arg Gln Leu Thr Va #l Ser Pro Glu Phe Pro                 140   #               145   #               150 ggg atc cgt cga cgg tac cag ata tca gga tc #c tgg cca gct agc tag      535 Gly Ile Arg Arg Arg Tyr Gln Ile Ser Gly Se #r Trp Pro Ala Ser             155       #           160       #           165 gta gct aga gg              #                   #                   #      546 Val Ala Arg <210> SEQ ID NO 4 <211> LENGTH: 166 <212> TYPE: PRT <213> ORGANISM: Saccharomyces cerevisiae <400> SEQUENCE: 4 Met Lys Leu Leu Ser Ser Ile Glu Gln Ala Cy #s Asp Ile Cys Arg Leu 1               5    #                10   #                15 Lys Lys Leu Lys Cys Ser Lys Glu Lys Pro Ly #s Cys Ala Lys Cys Leu             20       #            25       #            30 Lys Asn Asn Trp Glu Cys Arg Tyr Ser Pro Ly #s Thr Lys Arg Ser Pro         35           #        40           #        45 Leu Thr Arg Ala His Leu Thr Glu Val Glu Se #r Arg Leu Glu Arg Leu     50               #    55               #    60 Glu Gln Leu Phe Leu Leu Ile Phe Pro Arg Gl #u Asp Leu Asp Met Ile 65                   #70                   #75                   #80 Leu Lys Met Asp Ser Leu Gln Asp Ile Lys Al #a Leu Leu Thr Gly Leu                 85   #                90   #                95 Phe Val Gln Asp Asn Val Asn Lys Asp Ala Va #l Thr Asp Arg Leu Ala             100       #           105       #           110 Ser Val Glu Thr Asp Met Pro Leu Thr Leu Ar #g Gln His Arg Ile Ser         115           #       120           #       125 Ala Thr Ser Ser Ser Glu Glu Ser Ser Asn Ly #s Gly Gln Arg Gln Leu     130               #   135               #   140 Thr Val Ser Pro Glu Phe Pro Gly Ile Arg Ar #g Arg Tyr Gln Ile Ser 145                 1 #50                 1 #55                 1 #60 Gly Ser Trp Pro Ala Ser                 165 <210> SEQ ID NO 5 <211> LENGTH: 13 <212> TYPE: DNA <213> ORGANISM: Mus musculus <400> SEQUENCE: 5 aggacaaagg tca               #                   #                   #      13 <210> SEQ ID NO 6 <211> LENGTH: 23 <212> TYPE: DNA <213> ORGANISM: Mus musculus <400> SEQUENCE: 6 ggaccaggac aaaggtcacg ttc            #                   #                23 <210> SEQ ID NO 7 <211> LENGTH: 17 <212> TYPE: DNA <213> ORGANISM: Saccharomyces cerevisiae <400> SEQUENCE: 7 cggaggactg tcctccg              #                   #                   #   17 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for modalating the formation of macrophages involved in the development of atherosclerotic plaques in a subject, said method comprising administering to said subject an amount of at least one peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) antagonist or partial-agonist sufficient to modulate said formation.
 2. A method according to claim 1, wherein said antagonist or partial-agonist of PPAR-γ has the structure I:

wherein: each of X₁, X₂, X₃, X₄, X₅, and X₆ is independently selected from carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, with the proviso that at least three of the atoms forming the ring are carbon, R₁ is selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, alkenylaryl, substituted alkenylaryl, alkynylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, arylalkenyl, substituted arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, substituted arylalkynyl, poly(alkylene oxide), substituted poly(alkylene oxide), poly(alkylene sulfide), substituted poly(alkylene sulfide), poly(alkylene amine), substituted poly(alkylene amine), —OR, —SR, —NR₂, wherein each R is independently selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, alkenylaryl, substituted alkenylaryl, alkynylaryl, substituted alkynylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, arylalkenyl, substituted arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, substituted arylalkynyl, poly(alkylene oxide), substituted poly(alkylene oxide), poly(alkylene sulfide), substituted poly(alkylene sulfide), poly(alkylene amine), or substituted poly(alkylene amine); R₂ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, alkenylaryl, substituted alkenylaryl, alkynylaryl, substituted alkynylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, arylalkenyl, substituted arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, substituted arylalkynyl, oxyalkyl, poly(alkylene oxide), or substituted poly(alkylene oxide), R₃ is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, halogen, alkoxy, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, or substituted alkynyl; R₄ is selected from hydrogen, formyl, acyl, lower alkyl, or substituted lower alkyl; R₅ is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, lower alkoxy, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, or halogen; and R₆ is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, lower alkoxy, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, or halogen.
 3. A method according to claim 2, wherein R₁ of Formula (I) is selected from: —Y_(n)—(CR″R″)_(m)—Z, —Y_(n)—(CR″R″)_(m″)—O—(CR″R″)_(m′)—Z, or —Y_(n)—(CR″R″)_(m″)—N(R′″)—(CR″R″)_(m″)—Z, wherein: Y is —O— or —S—, n is 0 or 1, each R″ is independently selected from hydrogen, lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, hydroxy, lower alkoxy, thioalkyl, halogen, trifluoromethyl, cyano, nitro, amino, carboxyl, carbamate, sulfonyl, or sulfonamide, R′″ is selected from hydrogen, lower alkyl, or substituted lower alkyl, m falls in the range of 1 up to 15, each m′ falls independently in the range of 1 up to about 8, each m″ falls independently in the range of 0 up to about 12, and Z is a heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety, a substituted heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety, cyano, nitro, amino, carbamate, —OR³, wherein R³ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, acyl, or aryl; —C(O)R^(b), wherein R^(b) is selected from hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, alkylamino, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, arylamino, alkylaryl, substituted alkylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, alkenylaryl, substituted alkenylaryl, alkynylaryl, substituted alkynylaryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, arylalkenyl, substituted arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, substituted arylalkynyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, or trifluoromethyl; —CO₂R^(c), wherein R^(c) is selected from hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl; —SR^(a), —S(O)R^(a), S(O)₂R^(a), or —S(O)₂NHR^(a), wherein each R^(a) is as defined above.
 4. A method according to claim 3 wherein Z is a heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety or a substituted heteroatom-containing cyclic moiety.
 5. A method according to claim 3 wherein Z is a polyheteroatom-containing cyclic moiety or a substituted polyheteroatom-containing cyclic moiety.
 6. A method according to claim 3 wherein Z is a furan, thiophene, pyrrole, pyrazole, diazole, triazole, tetrazole, dithiole, oxathiole, oxazole, isoxazole, thiazole, isothiazole, oxadiazole, oxatriazole, dioxazole, oxathiazole, pyran, pyrone, dioxin, pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrazine, pyridazine, piperazine, diazine, triazine, oxazine, isoxazine, oxathiazine, oxadiazine, morpholino, azepin, oxepin, thiopin, diazepin, benzothiazole, or a thiazolidinedione.
 7. A method according to claim 3 wherein Z is a pyrazole, diazole, triazole, tetrazole, dithiole, oxathiole, oxazole, isoxazole, thiazole, isothiazole, oxadiazole, oxatriazole, dioxazole, oxathiazole, pyridazine, piperazine, diazine, triazine, oxazine, isoxazine, oxathiazine, oxadiazine, morpholine, diazepin, or a thiazolidinedione.
 8. A method according to claim 4 wherein R₁ of Formula (I) has the structure —Y_(n)—(CH₂)_(x)—Z wherein: Y is —O— or —S—, n is 0 or 1, x falls in the range of 2 up to 12; and Z is a triazole, tetrazole, oxadiazole, oxatriazole, dioxazole, oxathiazole, triazine, isoxaxine, oxathiazine, oxadiazine, or a thiazolidinedione.
 9. A method according to claim 2 wherein R₁ is —O—(CH₂)₄-[tetrazoline].
 10. A method according to claim 2 wherein R₂ of Fonnula (I) is selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, or butoxy.
 11. A method according to claim 2 wherein R₃ of Formula (I) is selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, or alkoxy.
 12. A method according to claim 2 wherein R₄ of Formula (I) is selected from formyl, acyl, thiazolidinediones or alkyl-substituted thiazolidinediones.
 13. A method according to claim 2 wherein R₅ of Formula (I) is hydrogen.
 14. A method according to claim 2 wherein R₆ of Formula (I) is hydrogen.
 15. A method according to claim 2 wherein at least one of R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, and R₆ are not hydrogen.
 16. A method according to claim 2 wherein at least two of R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, and R₆ are not hydrogen.
 17. A mehtod according to claim 16 wherein the backbone of R₁ contains no greater than 6 atoms.
 18. A method according to claim 2 wherein: R₁ is —O—(CH₂)₄-[tetrazoline], R₂ is hydrogen or lower alkyl, R₃ is hydroxy or alkoxy, R₄ is acyl or thiazolidinedione, and R₅ and R₆ are each hydrogen.
 19. A method according to claim 2 wherein: R₁ is —O—(CH₂)_(y)-thiazolidinedione, wherein y falls in the range of about 2 up to
 8. 20. A method for modulating the development of atherosclerotic plaques in a subject, said method comprising administering to said subject an amount of at least one peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) antagonist or partial-agonist sufficient to modulate said development. 